[Be sure you are familiar with the format and ground rules for this exam.]

Questions will be referred to by their "names," listed to their left.

"Name"	Question
ET-NON	How are moral considerations to be distinguished from non-moral considerations? What sorts of non-moral considerations might go into making a decision? How do each of these considerations differ from moral considerations? Critically discuss.
ET-NDM	Explain the difference between descriptive morality (or ethics) and normative morality (or ethics). Give examples of questions that are questions of descriptive morality. Give examples of questions that are questions of normative morality. What is metaethics? Give examples of questions that are questions of metaethics. Where does "applied ethics" fit into this categorization?
ET-GMP	Using the structure of General Moral Principle plus Factual Claims yielding a Derivative/Particular Moral Judgment construct one argument for the view that medical resources should not be used to keep alive irreversibly comatose patients and one argument against that view. Challenge one of those particular moral judgments using one of the techniques discussed by in class.
ET-MON	What is the difference between monistic and pluralistic ethical theories? Give examples of each. Explore a question of moral right and wrong and how it would be addressed by two different monistic deontological ethical theories and by two different pluralistic deontological ethical theories.
B-METH	Bentham details how to determine the "general tendency of an act, by which the interests of a community are affected." Explain this method and apply it to an example. That is, explain how one could apply Bentham's method to determine whether to tell a lie, for instance.
ET-CON	Explain the varieties of consequentialist theory. Be sure to include discussion of direct (or "act") and indirect (or "rule") consequentialism. In what cases do different consequentialist theories give different answers about what is morally right and morally wrong? Critically discuss.
ET-FUN	What principle does utilitarianism accept as the fundamental principle of morals? Give an example of its application. What objections might be raised to utilitarianism? Is the distinction between act (or direct) and rule (or indirect) utilitarianism any help in dispelling these objections? Critically discuss.
ET-UTI	Explain the differences between utilitarianism and other consequentialist ethical theories. Use examples to explain how different consequentialist theories might provide different answers to moral questions.
ET-RUL	What is rule-utilitarianism? Describe how a rule-utilitarian would go about determining whether a psychiatrist who has strong reason to believe one of her patients is about to commit a murder should inform the police. How would this differ from how an act-utilitarian would reach a decision on the matter?
ET-WOR	Under what circumstances, according to Kant, is there moral worth in an action (i.e., when does a person get moral credit for acting as she does)? Is Kant's view on this reasonable? Why or why not?
ET-HYP	What is the difference between a categorical imperative and a hypothetical imperative? What kinds of hypothetical imperatives are there, according to Kant? Give examples.
ET-GOLD	Explain Kant's categorical imperative in its various formulations. How, if at all, does it differ from the Golden Rule? What about Kant's approach distinguishes it from consequentialism? Critically discuss.
ET-MAX	What does Kant mean by a "maxim?" Give examples of maxims. Which maxims, according to Kant, is it morally permissible to act from? Explain.
ET-CI	State one of Kant's formulations of his categorical imperative and give an example of an action that is morally right according to that formulation. Explain why. Then state a different one of Kant's formulations of the categorical imperative and give an example of some action that is morally wrong according to that formulation. Does either of these formulations seem to you to express what we morally should or should not do? Explain.
ET-MEA	What is it to treat someone as a means? What is it to treat someone as an end? Does Kant say we must never treat someone as a means? Does Kant say that we should always treat people as ends? Critically discuss.
ET-KEX	Kant offers four examples of ethical questions (what should be done, what should not be done) and explains what his categorical imperative (in two of its formulations) says about these cases. Choose two of these examples and explain how the categorical imperative does or does not apply to them. Be sure to explain Kant's view, but feel free to explain your own as well.
ET-MUS	Suppose that it is possible to download copyrighted music via the internet without paying for it. Suppose that the makers of such music (the artists) don't want their music freely copied in this way. How would Kant address the question of whether it is morally permissible to download such music by such artists without paying for it? Explain in detail what a Kantian (a follower of Kant's moral theory) would say. Would a utilitarian give a different answer? Why or why not? Critically discuss.
PR-BAY	What is a profession? What, according to Bayles, are the necessary features of professions? What additional features does Bayles see as common to most professions? Give an example of a profession and show how it meets or fails to meet Bayles' criteria. Give an example of some occupation which meets two of the criteria which Bayles identifies as necessary conditions of a profession but which fails to meet the other one. Is that occupation a profession? Why or why not?
PR-CON	What distinction does Bayles find between "consulting" and "scholarly" professions? Give an example of each. Are there any professions which are difficult to classify as one or the other? Why? Critically discuss Bayles' distinction.
PR-CLI	Some professionals have clients. Nearly all are paid for services. When a professional has a client, is the person or party who pays a professional the same as the professional's client? Is a professional's responsibility to her/his client or to the person who is footing the bill? Critically discuss.
PR-WAS	In a footnote Richard Wasserstrom lists what he takes to be six characteristics of the professions: The professions require a substantial period of formal education--at least as much if not more than required by any other occupation. The professions require the comprehension of a substantial amount of theoretical knowledge and the utilization of a substantial amount of intellectual ability. Neither manual nor creative ability is typically demanded. ... The professions are both an economic monopoly and largely self-regulating. Not only is the practice of the professions restricted to those who are certified as possessing the requisite competencies, but the question of what competencies are required and who possesses them are questions that are left to the members of the professions to decide for themselves. The professions are clearly among the occupations that possess the greatest social prestige in the society. They also typically provide a degree of material affluence substantially greater than that enjoyed by most working persons. The professions are almost always involved with matters which from time to time are among the greatest personal concerns that human beings have: physical health, psychic well-being, liberty, and the like. As a result, persons who seek the services of a professional are often in a state of appreciable concern, if not vulnerability, when they do so. The professions almost always involve at their core a significant interpersonal relationship between the professional, on the one hand, and the person who is thought to require the professional's services: the patient or the client. ("Lawyers as Professionals: Some Moral Issues." The footnote has been edited out from the selection that appears in Martin et al., Ethics Across the Professions.) Critically discuss Wasserstrom's account of what a profession is in comparison and contrast with the account given by Bayles.
PR-OTH	What distinguishes professions from other jobs that are not considered professions? What difference, if any, does this difference make to the ethical demands upon practicing members of the professions? Critically discuss.
PO-HAR	Harris explores the question of whether professional codes can be seen as fitting into a Kantian ethical theory. Explain his view and some of the difficulties he explores. Critically discuss.
PO-VIR	Solomon in "The Basic Business Virtues" lists and explains several "virtues" of business. Carefully explain two of these, being sure to explain what he means by them and why he thinks they are virtues of business.
PO-PO	What is the relationship between ordinary normative morality (that binding on most people in most circumstances) and professional morality (that binding on professionals in their professional roles)? Discuss various views of this relationship and defend one view against the others.
PO-PAR	Joseph Ellin distinguishes the "parallel view" from the "priority view." Explain these views and the differences between them. Which view, if either, seems right to you? Why?
PO-ROL	What does Richard Wasserstrom mean by "role-differentiated behavior?" Give examples of role-differentiated behavior. What, if anything, does this have to do with principles of ethical behavior for professionals?
W-DIFF	Wasserstrom explores what he calls the "role-differentiated behavior" of the criminal defense lawyer. Explain what he means by this. To what extent does he think similar role-differentiated "amorality" of lawyers in other work is justified? What of professionals other than lawyers?
N-PUB	What does Nagel mean by "public morality?" How does Nagel think public morality is related to private morality? What differences does he see between them? Critically discuss.