Format of the Examination:

This examination counts as twenty percent (20%) of your grade. You will be asked to write two (2) essays, each worth ten (10) points, with a maximum possible of twenty (20) points.
Each question you answer must be from a different part, i.e. you may not choose two questions concerning the same philosopher.
At the start of the examination I will list the "names" of at least four (4) questions from which you must choose two (2). Please print out this document, put your name on it, and bring it (without notes written on it) to the examination for reference. It will be collected at the end of the examination.

Be sure to bring a blue book with you to the examination.

Ground Rules:

1. Naturally no help in answering the questions may be received from anyone (except yourself) during the examination. The work you hand in should be your own work.

2. Undergraduate students: You may bring with you to the examination one a 3" x 5" card of notes to use during the examination. You may use any abbreviations or diagrams on the card you find helpful (as well as English, of course). You may not use any unusual aids (e.g., magnifying glass, microfiche reader) during the examination to read the card. (Your usual spectacles and contact lenses are not "unusual aids.") No other books or notes may be used during the examination. What appears on the card you bring to class should be your own work. Each person should be the "author" of his or her own card. One exception: you may include quotations (but not photocopied) from the textbook or from any handout I have given. Everyone who uses such a card must hand it in with the examination with her or his name clearly on it. (The sheet does not have to be legible otherwise--just so you can read it.) The card will not be used to help determine a grade for the examination. (So on the examination don't say "see point 6a on the card.") I will return these cards to you if and when you come by to pick up your graded examination.

Questions:

"Name"	Question
E-POWER	According to Epictetus: "Of things some are in our power and others are not. In our power are opinion, movement toward a thing, desire, aversion (turning from a thing); and in a word, whatever are our own acts: not in our power are the body, property, reputation, offices (magisterial power), and in a word, whatever are not our own acts." What conclusions does he draw from this concerning how we can be happy? Critically discuss.
E-HAPP	Summarize and critique Epictetus' prescription for happiness, being sure to mention any central distinctions Epictetus draws in his discussion of how to be happy.
E-OPIN	Epictetus wrote, "men are disturbed not by the things which happen, but by the opinions about the things ..." What does this mean? Is it right? What conclusions does he draw from this concerning who is to blame for unhappiness? Critically discuss.
E-BANQ	"Remember that in life you ought to behave as at a banquet." Who said this? What does it mean? What are its implications? Critically discuss.
E-SPOU	According to Epictetus what attitude should we have if our spouse or child dies? Why? Critically discuss.
E-FRIE	Epictetus imagines someone suggesting that we ought to assist our friends. What is his response to this suggestion? Critically discuss.
AQ-LAW	State Aquinas's definition of "law." Explain what Aquinas means by each term in the definition. Does each term seem necessary to the definition (i.e. to what law really is)? Why or why not?
AQ-NAT	What does Aquinas mean by "natural law?" How is natural law, on Aquinas's view related to what he calls "eternal law?" How is "human law" related to natural law? Critically explore.
A-DIVL	"It would seem that there was no need for a divine law because, ... the natural law is a participation in us of the eternal law. But the eternal law is a divine law ... Therefore, there is no need for a divine law in addition to the natural law and human laws derived therefrom." What would Aquinas say to this argument? Where would he agree with it? Where, if anywhere, would he disagree? Why? Critically discuss.
A-4RNS	Explain and evaluate the four reasons Aquinas gives for the claim that "[b]esides the natural and the human law, it was necessary for the directing of human life to have a divine law."
AQ-SAM	How does Aquinas answer the question of whether the natural law is the same for all men? (In thinking about this question, take note of his distinction between general principles and conclusion drawn from them about matters of detail, and the distinction between what is true and what is known or believed.) Critically discuss his answer.
AQ-CHA	Aquinas discusses two ways a change in the natural law may be understood. Explain these ways and the difference between them. In which of these ways, if any, does Aquinas think natural law may change. Explain and critically discuss.
AQ-OBJ	As an objection to his view Aquinas says "Further, the slaying of the innocent, adultery, and theft are against the natural law. But we find these things changed by God: as when God commanded Abraham to slay his innocent son (Gn. 22:2); and when he ordered the Jews to borrow and purloin the vessels of the Egyptians (Ex. 12:35); and when He commanded Osee to take to himself `a wife of fornications' (Osee 1:2). Therefore the natural law can be changed." Explain and critically discuss Aquinas's answer to this objection and how it fits into his theory of natural law.
AQ-UNJ	Explain Thomas Aquinas's doctrine of "unjust laws." What conditions, according to Thomas, would make a human law unjust? Does Thomas think that we must obey unjust laws? Critically explore Thomas's position on unjust laws.
HU-SLA	Hume wrote "reason is, and ought only to be, the slave of the passions ..." Explain this remark and the view that led Hume to it. Critically discuss.
HU-ORI	Hume offers an argument in the Treatise that begins with the claim that "A passion is an original existence ..." Lay out this argument. What is its conclusion? Critically evaluate the argument.
HU-UNRV	In what sense, if any, according to Hume, can a passion be "unreasonable?" Critically discuss Hume's views on this matter.
HU-RN1	Hume argues that the rules of morality are not conclusions of our reason. Carefully explain and critically discuss his argument for this claim.
HU-MUR	Hume says "Take any action allowed to be vicious: Wilful murder, for instance." What point is he trying to make in his examination of wilful murder? Critically discuss.
HU-OUG	David Hume writes: "In every system of morality, which I have hitherto met with, I have always remarked, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary way of reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations concerning human affairs; when of a sudden I am surprised to find, that instead of the usual copulations of propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no proposition that is not connected with an ought, or an ought not." (Treatise III,i,1) What does Hume have to say about this? Critically discuss.
HU-GEN	In the Treatise Hume suggests we need to judge morally from a "general points of view." What problem is he trying solve by introducing the notion of a general point of view? Explain how it is supposed to solve the problem. Does it? Critically discuss.
HU-4S	What on Hume's view are the four sources of virtue? Explain virtues that arise from each of these sources. Are there any counterexamples to Hume's claim (any virtues, i.e, which do not come from any of these sources)?
HU-RN2	What role, if any, does David Hume find for reason in morality? What role, if any, does he find for sentiment? Which does he feel is the foundation for morality? Is he right? Critically discuss.
HU-MERIT	What, according to David Hume, is personal merit? Give various examples of attributes Hume would regard as meritorious and explain in what their merit consists, on Hume's view. Critically discuss.
HU-CRIME	In considering ingratitude Hume asks "where is that matter of fact, which we here call crime?" What is his answer? What is the point of his question and answer? Critically discuss.
HU-5CON	Hume offers "five considerations" (which he numbers) designed to prove that reason "is not alone sufficient to produce any moral blame or approbation." Explain his second such consideration. Does it prove what he takes it to prove? Critically discuss.
HU-BEAU	David Hume develops an analogy between "moral beauty" and "natural beauty." Explain his analogy and what he uses it to prove. Critically discuss.
HU-TREE	"A young tree," Hume writes, "which over-tips and destroys its parent, stands in all the same relations with Nero, when he murdered Agrippina..." What is Hume trying to prove with this remark? How does the proof go? Is the proof correct? Critically discuss.
HU-LANG	David Hume writes: "General language, therefore, being formed for general use, must be moulded on some more general views, and must affix the epithets of praise or blame, in conformity to sentiments, which arise from the general interests of the community." Explain and critically discuss.
HU-SOLE	In the first appendix to his An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals David Hume offers five considerations aimed to show that no theory which supposes "reason to be the sole source of morals" will be found to be satisfactory. Critically explore one such consideration.